Introduction Nanotechnology suggests unique approaches to de

Introduction Nanotechnology suggests unique approaches to detect and regulate order Fulvestrant of biomedical processes that take place at nanometer scale, and is expected to have a fundamental effect on biology and medicine. Nanoparticles the size of which falls into the range of biological molecules and structures have attracted much attention in recent years for their potential applications in biomedical research. Useful features can be incorporated into nanoparticles for manipulation or detection of biological structures and events [1,2]. (See Tables A.1 and A.2.) Different characteristics of nanoparticles such as size, shape and surface charge have all been shown to strongly influence therapeutic and diagnostic efficiency by changing cell uptake and functional surface area. Nanoparticles are defined as particles between 1 and 1000nm that have a range of unique properties including surface chemistry, size, shape-dependent electronic, and optical properties that support a variety of applications containing drug and gen delivery [3], bioimaging [4,5], vaccine development [6],biosensors, and therapies [7–11]. Bioconjugation simply involves the bond of biomolecules to nanoparticles by chemical or biological means, which render them ideal for clinical applications; it includes the conjugation of biologically active molecules to nanoparticles. The outcome is the combinations of beneficial properties [12]. The conjugation of different functionalized groups to nanoparticles is necessary for their stability, functionality, and biocompatibility and develops their application fields, and provides them with novel and improved properties [13]. A range of functionalized groupscan be attached to the nanoparticles including low molecular weight ligands [14], peptides [15,16], proteins [17], polysaccharides [18], polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids [19], DNA [20], plasmids, and siRNA [21–24].
Unique synthetic properties of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) By using simple and biocompatible chemistry, it is possible to obtain mono dispersed samples in the 5nm to 50nm size range [25]. This review will describe the various interactions and modes used to functionalize GNPs, and will provide a detailed overview of recent developments in bioconjugation.
Conclusion
Disclosure of interest
Acknowledgements This study was financially supported by a research grant from Iran National Science Foundation.
Introduction Neutron detection devices have found application in many fields such as area monitors and personal dosimeters for health physics and homeland security. Most active neutron detectors operate on the 3He(n,p)3H reaction, which suffers from the limited supply and high cost of 3He. Portable solid-state device (SSD) neutron detectors are being examined as low-cost, low-power alternatives to 3He-based detectors. To attain an efficient collection of charges generated through energetic reaction product interactions (indirectly leading to neutron detection), current SSD neutron detectors rely on 6Li and 10B to capture low-energy neutrons and produce energetic charged particles. The traditional detector structure is comprised of a planar thin-film coating of neutron reactive material arranged in proximity to a semiconductor diode. Neutrons that are captured by the active layer produce charged particles that can subsequently enter the adjacent diode and generate electron–hole pairs that are measured by various electrical probing techniques [1]. Researchers have reported improved neutron conversion efficiency [1–6] from ~4.5% for neutron detectors with planar coating of neutron conversion layer up to ~48.5%, as reported recently by Shao et al. [2], by optimizing the microstructure of the neutron conversion layer to increase collection of the charged particles from the neutron capture reaction. For dosimetry applications, the device sensitivity can be limited by the incomplete transfer of charged particles produced in the neutron converter layer to create and store charge from electron–hole pairs near or in the active region of the detector. In contrast, for direct conversion heterostructures, the neutron-sensitive material and space charge layer are the same, so that nearly all of the energy of the charged particle reaction products could be available for transduction [7]. So far, fabricating efficient direct conversion heterostructures has been a challenge, since the neutron-sensitive material incorporated within the device typically does not have the electronic characteristics to enable efficient charge separation and subsequent collection denoting a neutron capture event [4,6–9].