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    • Neuroimaging studies have shown that regions such as

    2018-11-07

    Neuroimaging studies have shown that regions such as the FFA, STS and TPJ show selectivity for social stimuli by early childhood if not sooner. However, changes in the patterns of activation, and in the networks associated with activation of these perceptual regions, continue to occur through at least late adolescence (Carter and Pelphrey, 2008; Guroglu et al., 2011; Johnson, 2011; Pfeifer and Blakemore, 2012; Pfeifer and Peake, 2012; Cohen Kadosh et al., 2013b; Blakemore and Mills, 2014). For example, face sensitive regions have been shown to increase in both spatial extent and response magnitude through adolescence (Aylward et al., 2005; Golarai et al., 2007; Scherf et al., 2007). These changes have been attributed to both age and pubertal status (Moore et al., 2012). As the face response network extends to other regions of the brain, it also becomes more flexibly engaged during different goal states. For example, task demands elicit developmental differences in ap-1 function during face processing through early adulthood (Cohen Kadosh et al., 2010, 2013c). Whether a face is being scanned for purposes of identity, emotional content, or feature detection influences the extent to which perceptual regions co-activated with other networks (Cohen Kadosh et al., 2010; Johnson, 2011; Cohen Kadosh et al., 2013a). During social perception tasks, increased functional connectivity has been observed with non-perceptual regions with increased age (van den Bos et al., 2011; Pfeifer and Blakemore, 2012; Cohen Kadosh et al., 2013b). However, this may depend in part on demands of the task and strategy adopted by the subjects (Cohen Kadosh et al., 2010; Moor et al., 2012; Cohen Kadosh et al., 2013c). Scherf and Scott have suggested that developmental differences in engagement patterns may reflect differences in social demand. For instance, the most important social signals during the juvenile phase may relate to valence, but during the peer integration phase of adolescence social features that tap social cognition processes like dominance and trustworthiness may become more important (Scherf and Scott, 2012).
    Developmental changes in affective/motivational regions In human neuroimaging studies, the most prominent structures implicated in social affect and motivation are the amygdala and striatum, ventral prefrontal cortex, and anterior insula. The animal literature has identified a much more extensive network of regions involved in the expression of emotional or motivational behavior within social environments including the hypothalamus, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and brain stem regions (Panksepp, 1998). This discrepancy is most likely due to limitations of neuroimaging techniques, rather than a fundamental difference in brain structures mediating social emotions between animals and humans. It is clear that the amygdala and striatum, in particular, interface with both perceptual regions in temporal lobe (Hadj-Bouziane et al., 2008; Cassia et al., 2009; Hadj-Bouziane et al., 2012; Miyahara et al., 2013; Haeger et al., 2015) and executive systems in prefrontal cortex (Guyer et al., 2008a; Crone and Dahl, 2012; Guyer et al., 2012; Jarcho et al., 2015a; Smith et al., 2015) to guide social behavior under varying conditions. In contrast to the developmental changes in the perceptual regions, which can be characterized as early large scale organization followed by protracted refinement, the most consistently reported developmental profile of both the amygdala and striatum is an inverted U-shaped pattern in which responsiveness to social stimuli increases from the late juvenile phase into adolescence, and then diminishes again from adolescence into adulthood (Guyer et al., 2008b; Hare et al., 2008; Galvan, 2010; Somerville and Casey, 2010; Chein et al., 2011; Spear, 2011; Scherf et al., 2013; Somerville et al., 2013). However, this pattern is not always observed (Spear, 2011; Crone and Dahl, 2012; Pfeifer and Allen, 2012). For example, a linear decrease has been reported in amygdala response to unfamiliar adult faces between early childhood and mid adolescence (Tottenham et al., 2012), and several studies have found relative increases between adolescents and adults in activity of both striatum and amygdala in response to various social stimuli (Ernst et al., 2006; Carter and Pelphrey, 2008; Guyer et al., 2009; Bjork et al., 2010; Galvan, 2010; Gunther Moor et al., 2010; Scherf et al., 2013; Casey et al., 2014).